​Some archeological discoveries are intentional, while others are accidental. Either way, archeologists typically work to carefully preserve the historical objects they unearth. Artifact preservation safeguards archeological finds, ensuring availability and accessibility for future generations.

When archeologists discover ancient pottery, for example, they document their discoveries with photos, videos, and reports. Next, they may establish when the object was used. From there, they classify the object under its respective category, such as Renaissance pottery. They may also display the artifact at a museum for entertainment, education, or research purposes.

Before scientists can do anything to an object, they evaluate it to determine its condition and outline the necessary preservation techniques. Some artifacts are recovered in their original state, while others are damaged or incomplete. The latter are typically repaired to restore them to the extent possible.

Most items require cleaning before storing. The cleaning method also depends on the artifact in question. A popular cleaning method for cleaning metal is electrolysis, which removes rust.

Next comes preservation. This helps maintain an object’s integrity while preserving it for posterity. Preservation techniques like resin coating and desalination stabilize damaged objects, preventing further degradation.

Preservation techniques depend on the object’s material. Popular techniques include vacuum-sealing, freezing, and chemical treatment. Organic artifacts such as plants, wood, and textiles may require storage where temperature, humidity, and light are carefully controlled. This protects objects against damage from environmental and biological factors, such as mold.

Records are also an important part of archeology, as they allow researchers to make sense of historical objects. Assigning each object an identification number through cataloging is necessary for accessibility and tracking purposes.

The more detailed an artifact’s documentation, the richer its context. Records should provide information on the location and condition of the find, restoration, cleaning, and preservation work conducted. They should also include any data that might enrich the finding’s context, such as topographical maps of the area and geographic information systems data.

Some historical finds deteriorate despite even the best preservation efforts, a reality that archeologists must contend with. In this case, digitization techniques can be helpful. With technology like 3D imagery, scientists can reconstruct archeological sites and artifacts. They can also preserve them virtually. For example, by digitizing the Gunboat Philadelphia (the oldest American fighting vessel), the Smithsonian American Art Museum documented minute areas of damage and other structural changes to the vessel (which was recovered in 1935 with much of its equipment intact).

Light projection is another technique that is used. Harvard Art Museum collaborated with the University of Basel and MIT to develop software that generates faded paintings’ original colors, which are then projected via low-intensity light onto the original material, virtually restoring it. Such a technology could bring back to public view writings and paintings that are too fragile for restoration by traditional methods.

Not all historical finds make it to museums’ public galleries. However, modern technologies can increase accessibility to these artifacts. Thanks to virtual reality, audiences can experience a 3D image of an object remotely. Such technologies also help address ethical concerns. Balancing public accessibility with the cultural significance of some objects can be challenging. With virtual reality, global audiences can experience history without the objects ever leaving their places of origin.

Artifact preservation is critical for several reasons. It conserves history and cultural heritage while providing humans with tangible links to the past. It also offers immense research opportunities, as future researchers can leverage advances in archeological research to open new lines of inquiry and develop new perspectives.

​The intellectual streams of the ancient Middle East were firmly rooted in religious cosmology and thought, forming a rich tapestry that influenced Western civilization for centuries. From the fertile Mesopotamian valleys to the banks of the Nile, early civilizations developed advanced conceptual frameworks to address existential questions about life, divinity, and humanity.

At the heart of Middle Eastern philosophy was the concept of the sacred, where divine agency existed in every realm of life and nature. According to this worldview, everything earthly had a divine prototype, ensuring easy continuity between the worldly and sacred spheres. The Mesopotamians, for instance, believed that the universe was created by introducing order into chaos, a frequent theme in numerous later philosophical and religious traditions.

One of the earliest and most significant philosophical systems to emerge from this region was Zoroastrianism, founded by the Iranian prophet Zarathustra between 1700 and 1800 BCE. Zoroastrian philosophy introduced a rich ethical dualism that would influence many later philosophical traditions. It was the first system to address the problem of evil in metaphysical terms, proposing a conflict between good and evil powers in a monotheistic framework. This metaphysical innovation would later shape Jewish, Christian, and Islamic philosophy.

The Babylonians developed philosophical traditions that went beyond descriptive observation to provide systems of reason and rationale. Their philosophical treatises, such as "Dialog of Pessimism," possessed strikingly similar features to those of post-Greek writings, suggesting possibly some influence over Western philosophy. The dialectic structure of the text was similar to the dialogue technique of Plato and Socrates.

In ancient Egyptian philosophy, the divine-human relationship was particularly advanced. The Egyptians possessed abstract ideas about the afterlife that were linked to ethical behavior in this life. Ma'at, the concept of truth, justice, and cosmic order, was part of their philosophical framework and influenced both practical rule and metaphysical theory.

The ancient Middle East also saw the emergence of various schools of philosophy that explored the essence of light and wisdom. These included Manichaeism, which used Zoroastrianism's dualistic framework, and Zurvanism, which used time as an original creator and explored various means of comprehending reality in terms of aesthetic, materialist, and fatalistic approaches.

The relationship between religion and science in ancient Middle Eastern philosophy was particularly important. Rather than seeing them as separate fields of study, ancient thinkers integrated astronomical observations, mathematical axioms, and religious ideas into coherent systems of thinking. Numbers were not only useful but also spiritually important.

Other modes of literature, including epic poetry, literature of wisdom, and religious works, transmitted and sustained these philosophical schools. The contrast between sacred and secular philosophy also often remained ill-defined, as can be seen in texts such as the epic of Gilgamesh, which combines religious narrative and philosophical speculation.

The influence of Middle Eastern philosophy transcended its era and geographic boundaries. Its impact is evident in Greek philosophy, the Abrahamic religions, and contemporary philosophical thought. The sophisticated ways in which these early thinkers explored questions of existence, morality, and the relationship between the divine and human realms continue to shape modern philosophical inquiry.

​A museum curator is someone who is employed by a museum to handle and arrange exhibits, collections, and other items meant to be displayed in the museum. They also oversee and preserve the collections and artifacts, ensuring their integrity and condition.

Museum curators can provide details and create exhibits that make visitors' experiences enjoyable and help them navigate the museum. They might also be involved in activities such as fundraising, promoting the museum, managing its public image, and developing educational initiatives related to the institution.

The main duty of a curator is to manage the collections held in a museum; so the word "curator" comes from the Latin verb "curare," meaning "to care for," and has evolved significantly in the last 25 years.  It now includes both the traditional role of managing collections in museums and overseeing departments in large museums.

Museums employ several professionals, including exhibit designers, fundraisers, conservators, collections managers, educators, and museum directors. Curators serve as pivotal figures who work together with all these staff members. A museum's limited storage space necessitates curators deciding which items are worthy of being acquired for its collections.

A museum curator's specific roles and duties can differ based on the museum's size. A museum curator who works for a smaller museum is likely to have a broader range of tasks and might also need to handle administrative or managerial roles alongside their curatorial work. While curators who work for larger museums often focus on a specific field of expertise, handling tasks that are exclusively connected to their area of specialization.

The role of a curator also involves creating themes for exhibitions and conducting research on the museum's collections and displays. Exhibit concepts are carefully mapped out over some time (as long as three years in some cases) to facilitate negotiations for borrowing artifacts from other museums or private collectors. Curators work closely with exhibition designers and educators to craft exhibits that captivate and educate the broader audience.

A museum curator is expected to possess several technical skills. These skills might range from research to project management, fundraising, collections management, and art collections skills. It is also important that the curator understands fine arts, museum displays, educational initiatives, and oral traditions. 

Collections management involves the systematic recording, safeguarding, and explanation of items crucial to fulfilling a museum's objectives. Curators use collections management to systematically list and categorize their artifacts, monitor where they are stored, and ensure their preservation.

Art collections consist of artworks assembled by either artists or curators. Museum curators use art collections for conducting studies, arranging public exhibitions, and showcasing artworks to audiences. They also work hand in hand with contract conservators to develop treatment plans for the artworks in their collections.

Another museum skill a curator must possess is museum exhibit skills. Museum exhibits showcase items and details within a museum setting. Curators are also responsible for creating and managing displays, as well as crafting descriptions on placards to explain them.

As a museum curator, you should be good at cataloging. Cataloging is the creation of entries for items or objects. Museum curators use cataloging methods to monitor and organize the artifacts within their collections. They input information into software applications, handle the processing and organization of newly acquired artifacts, and instruct volunteers on correct cataloging methods.

​The Middle East is home to some of the most fascinating archaeological sites in the world. Many of these sites attract thousands of tourists from across the globe every year. Because it is rich in history and culture, the Middle East is a must-visit destination for anyone who loves history and would love to explore the archaeological elements.

One of the most famous archaeological centers in the Middle East is the Pyramids of Giza. The pyramids are situated on the west bank of the Nile River, on a plateau known as the Giza Plateau. These pyramids were built in the 25th century BC, approximately between 2480 and 2550 BC. The largest and oldest pyramid on the Giza plateau is the Khufu. This pyramid comprises approximately 23 million stone blocks that weigh 2.5 tons each, and it took over 3800 years to build. In addition to the Pyramids of Giza, the Giza plateau is also home to the tombs of the kings of the Fourth Dynasty and the Sphinx, a creature with the body of a lion and the head of a human. The sphinx is usually described as the guardian of the plateau.

Further, located off the Mediterranean Sea on the topmost tip of Africa, Carthage is one of the most ancient cities in the world. Today, the city of Carthage is 15 kilometers from Tunis, the modern capital of Tunisia. Carthage was so powerful it built an empire that encompassed a huge swath of the western Mediterranean Sea. Today, the city of Carthage is home to some of the most fascinating archaeological museums with Carthage and Roman artifacts. Similarly, the Roman Houses Quarter contains several aristocratic monuments and buildings that the Romans constructed during their occupation of the city. The Roman theater of Carthage is famous to tourists for its semi-circular runways and its overall architectural beauty.

Also, Baylon is an archaeologically rich city that will fascinate travelers. Babylon was one of the most populated cities in ancient times. Among other things, the city is famous for its hanging gardens, the Ishtar Gate, and the Tower of Babel. All of these monuments are listed as ancient wonders of the world. Babylon was at the core of the success of ancient Mesopotamia, and it facilitated Babylonian trading and transport. Over time, the city of Babylon fell into ruins, and it is currently a UNESCO World Heritage Site situated near Baghdad in Iraq.

About 2,000 years old, Petra is one of the most ancient cities in the Middle East and is surrounded by sandstone cliffs and mountains. Petra houses some of the most fascinating architectural materials in the kingdom of Jordan and was named one of the Seven Wonders of the World in 2007. Some of the most fascinating elements of the city are its elaborate caved-in pink rocks. This architecture is symbolic of the various ancient civilizations that traded in and occupied Petra. Tourists often consider the monastery as the most fascinating of Petra’s rock-cut buildings. The monastery is also the largest carved mountain in the city. Another heavily visited site is the Nabataean Theater.

Similarly, in Saudi Arabia, there is a remote settlement named Hegra or Mada’in Saleh, which is about a thousand years old. Hegra was the second city of the Nabataean civilization after their capital city, Petra, in Jordan. It was an important trading post, connecting to several important trading routes around the Arabian peninsula. The city is home to 110 ancient tombs and inscriptions that are symbolic of the Nabataean artistic abilities. It is also the first Saudi Arabian destination to be named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

​Each state in America has natural history museums that feature exhibits on animals, plants, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, and climatology. Some of the most famous of these venues include the Houston Museum of Natural Science, the National Museum of Natural History, the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, and the Denver Museum of Nature and Science.

The Houston Museum of Natural Science is one of the most renowned natural history museums in the United States. Established in 1909 by the Houston Museum and Scientific Society, it was founded with the aim of providing a free institution dedicated to education and science. Drawing over two million visitors annually, the museum consists of four floors of natural science halls and exhibits.

The museum features 16 permanent exhibits, including a Foucault pendulum that spans over 60 feet wide and vividly demonstrates the Earth's rotation. The Cullen Hall of Gems & Minerals showcases an impressive collection of over 750 crystallized mineral specimens and rare gemstones. Complementing these exhibits is the renowned Burke Baker Planetarium, which offers immersive experiences in science and astronomy. Equipped with a cutting-edge Digistar 5 full-dome projection system, it is one of the pioneering 8k planetariums in the United States.

Located near Georgetown on the National Mall in Washington, DC, the National Museum of Natural History is one of the top natural history museums in the United States and worldwide. During the summer months, the museum experiences peak visitation, with extended hours from 10 AM to 7:30 PM and complimentary admission for all.

This museum showcases a collection of over 145 million specimens and an exhibit within the Hall of Human Origins that traces our ancestral human lineage from the dawn of our species to the present day. The Dinosaur Hall of Paleobiology houses over 570,000 cataloged reptiles and continues to expand its collection, while the innovative Triceratops exhibit showcases the first-ever accurate depiction of a dinosaur skeleton in virtual motion through digital technology.

Nestled in the heart of Los Angeles, California, The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County serves as a vital hub for science and nature education within the city. It houses one of the world's most extensive and significant collections of natural and cultural history, with an impressive array of nearly 35 million specimens and objects. As one of LA's oldest cultural institutions, the museum boasts iconic exhibits such as the Age of Mammals, the Dinosaur Hall, the Gem and Mineral Hall, and a collection of intricate dioramas. Beyond recounting the planet's history, the museum showcases the local environment's evolution through its outdoor Nature Gardens and the Nature Lab. Notably, millions of plant and animal fossils excavated from the La Brea Tar Pits narrate the story of the Los Angeles Basin over the past 50,000 years.

As a cornerstone of science education in the Rocky Mountain region, the Denver Museum of Nature and Science offers a diverse array of exhibits and programs that offer insights into the natural history of Colorado and beyond. Operating as a non-profit institution, a dedicated team of more than 1,800 volunteers and 350 full-time employees support the museum's operations. Each year, the museum welcomes over 300,000 students in school groups, providing them with enriching experiences through exhibits, IMAX films, lectures, and classes across various fields of natural science.

With over a million objects on display, including natural history and anthropological materials, visitors are treated to a wealth of knowledge. Among its notable permanent exhibits is Egyptian Mummies, featuring two mummies alongside several coffins and other ancient artifacts. Additionally, a current special exhibit titled Extreme Sports explores the environments where extreme athletes push boundaries.

​The origins of natural history museums go back to the Renaissance, when the wealthy owned private collections of specimens and other relics, including some items that were replicas. In the 18th century, one of the earliest known serious collectors was Sir Hans Sloane, a physician who traveled the world collecting specimens and other artifacts that led to the founding of the United Kingdom’s Natural History Museum in 1881. By the end of the 19th century natural history museums had been established in many parts of the world, including the Carnegie Museum of Natural History (CMNH) in Pittsburgh.

Today's CMNH mission has expanded considerably since its opening in 1895. The museum houses 22 million specimens and artifacts that combine the world's natural and scientific elements. Further, 10,000 specimens are typically displayed, and 1 million are in an online database. The modern-day CMNH also emphasizes inclusivity as it relates to the perspectives that are a part of the exhibits. The museum contains 20 galleries and research, library, and office space occupying 115,000 square feet. Outside of its mission of housing natural history, staff engage the community by visiting schools in western Pennsylvania.

CMNH's work is a collaboration among various disciplines. These disciplines, spanning 10 departments, work together to strategically find ways to maximize the museum's research, exhibitions, and public programming.

The history of the CMNH starts with philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, who became wealthy in the steel industry. He wanted to create a museum accessible to everyone, regardless of rank or social class. An evolutionist, Carnegie was interested in paleontology, specifically dinosaurs. In Carnegie's time, paleontology expeditions had become very popular, with his scientists making a breakthrough discovery a few years after the museum opened. The museum scientists collected 400 crates of fossils for the early CMNH as part of its paleontological expeditions. Outside of dinosaurs, the museum exhibited artifacts from Ancient Egypt, beautiful minerals, and wildlife taxidermy.

At some point, the museum expanded to fund expeditions that took botanists, zoologists, anthropologists, and entomologists to the farthest parts of the planet to explore places in the Arctic and the Amazon, among others. The fauna and flora they collected helped the museum expand its collection from thousands to millions of artifacts and specimens.

The CMNH has accomplished much throughout its existence, including unearthing the Diplodocus carnegii fossils in 1899. It also found one of the planet's only juvenile fossils of the Apatosaurus, the world's first Tyrannosaurus rex, and in more recent times, an oviraptorosaur the CMNH calls Anzu wyliei. Other significant discoveries were of the Puijila darwini, Castorocauda lutrasimilis, and Hadrocodium wui. Outside of these finds, the museum also founded the Powdermill Nature Reserve in 1956. Later, it established a field station and laboratory in Rector, Pennsylvania, to enable researchers to perform long-term studies of natural populations in the state.

The museum also took 400 fossils and created the Dinosaurs in Their Time exhibit, which the CMNH is widely known for. Other notable exhibitions include the Hillman Hall of Minerals and Gems, the Walton Hall of Ancient Egypt, the Benedum Hall of Geology, the Alcoa Foundation Hall of American Indians, and Polar World: Wyckoff Hall of Arctic Life.

Much of the research at the CMNH is published in scholarly journals, including its own Annals of Carnegie Museum, which publishes peer-reviewed articles. Additionally, the CMNH publishes Bulletins of Carnegie Museum, a collection of symposia papers, and the Special Publications of Carnegie Museum, which publishes special topics and research.

From its start as a paleontological and artifact effort, the CMNH continues expanding to take on other missions, including its recent focus on conservation. For more information regarding the museum, please visit carnegiemnh.org.

​
Delirium is an acute, transient, and typically reversible neuropsychiatric syndrome. The elderly have a risk of experiencing delirium.

Indicators of delirium include slow responses, worsened concentration, and confused perception, such as visual-auditory hallucinations. Changes in social behavior, including challenges in following requests, changes in communication, and moodiness and withdrawal, also indicate delirium.

Several factors contribute to delirium, including age-related cognitive decline and medications. Delirium is a psychiatric emergency that often involves dementia and a history of cognitive impairment. Addressing these multifactorial symptoms requires talking to the patient calmly, explaining who and where they are, and explaining the care provider's role. It also includes socialization pathways, such as arranging regular visits with friends and undertaking cognitively stimulating activities, such as reminiscences and conversations about daily life.

Individuals with delirium require monitoring until the symptoms subside. Essential care includes ensuring that the patient is safe and getting sufficient sleep and avoiding common issues such as falls and bed sores. Some patients benefit from psychiatric medications to help them overcome the confusion and disorientation associated with delirium. Physical restraints serve as a last resort, only undertaken when measures such as pharmacotherapy have failed, and harm-threatening behaviors persist, which become dangerous to the patient and those around them.

​Operated by the Manned Space Flight Education Foundation, Space Center Houston remains a renowned nonprofit educational institution and space museum dedicated to science education and space exploration. The center features over 400 space artifacts, exhibits, and experiences to provide an immersive journey into America's human space-flight program. NASA Tram Tours serve as key attractions at Space Center Houston.

NASA Tram Tours provide an exclusive opportunity to visit NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC) and witness the marvels of human space exploration firsthand. Situated across 1,600 acres, JSC serves as the training hub for NASA astronauts and houses Mission Control, where a dedicated team in Houston supports astronauts in space. Three tram tours are available: the Historic Mission Control Tour, Astronaut Training Facility Tour, and George W.S. Abbey Rocket Park Tour.

The Historic Mission Control Tour takes guests back to the iconic Christopher C. Kraft Mission Control. The tour focuses on NASA's Gemini and Apollo missions, including the historic first lunar landing. Located in Building 30 of NASA Johnson Space Center, this facility served as the nerve center for nine Gemini and all Apollo lunar missions. From here, the NASA team orchestrated the entire Apollo 11 mission from liftoff to landing. Guests experience the same monitors and rotary dials used during the Apollo era. They can also experience the final moments of the Apollo 11 lunar landing as they hear Neil Armstrong's famous words.

Guests must reserve a timed spot in advance for the Historic Mission Control Tram Tour when purchasing their general admission ticket. Tours depart from the left queue at the NASA Tram Tour boarding area, with the last tour departing two hours before closing. Historic Mission Control may not be available on weekends, and tours are subject to weather conditions and facility availability. Visitors must purchase it as an add-on to a general admission ticket at an additional cost.

The Astronaut Training Facility Tour allows guests to learn about how NASA astronauts prepare for their missions and the development of cutting-edge space exploration vehicles. Since 1980, the Astronaut Training Facility at NASA Johnson Space Center has been the training ground for every NASA astronaut. This tour offers a rare glimpse into this facility, where astronauts undergo rigorous training before missions.

Initially designed to support the space shuttle program, the facility has evolved to accommodate various training needs. Today, it houses exploration rover prototypes, robotics projects like Valkyrie, and modules for the International Space Station. It also serves as a testing ground for Orion, NASA's crewed space vehicle.

During the tour, visitors walk along an elevated path overlooking the training sessions and witness astronauts and engineers in action. The tour also includes a visit to Rocket Park, where one of only three Saturn V rockets is on display. The general admission cost to the Space Center Houston includes the open-air tour.

The George WS Abbey Rocket Park Tour at Space Center Houston enables guests to explore the center's impressive rockets collection, including one of only three remaining Saturn V rockets worldwide. The Saturn V stands as the tallest, heaviest, and most powerful rocket ever flown, which played a pivotal role in the Apollo program to send Americans to the Moon. Guests can observe the towering 363-foot tall rocket that boasts a staggering weight of 6.2 million pounds when fueled for launch. Guests learn about the stages of launch and flight as they discover how the Saturn V rocket functioned during its missions.

Serving as Houston's premier attraction and the official visitor center of NASA Johnson Space Center, it has welcomed over 25 million visitors since its inception in 1992 and receives 1.25 million visitors annually.

​A Texas-based 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, the Houston Museum District Association (HMDA) is responsible for managing the interests of 20 museums all located within a nine-square-mile region of Houston. The zone has been recognized by the state government as a cultural district. Each museum under the aegis of the HMDA has a unique focus, such as the Health Museum.

Houston’s Health Museum is an extension of the Texas Medical Center. It is both a medical museum and an interactive science center. Popular attractions include the Amazing Body Pavilion, which allows visitors to walk through a larger-than-life exhibit of the human body, and You: The Exhibit, which uses advanced technology and effects to show museum patrons visions of their futures.

The Health Museum is also home to the city’s first 4D theater, the McGovern 4D Theater. Films shown at the theater include Planet You, a 3D exploration of human skin and the many microscopic creatures that live there.

Additional HMDA members include the Children’s Museum, the Buffalo Soldiers National Museum, Holocaust Museum Houston, and the Houston Center for Contemporary Craft. More information about all HMDA museums and events can be found online at houmuse.org.

​One of the highlights at the Houston Museum of Natural Science’s Cullen Hall of Gems and Minerals is a 3,000-carat topaz crystal. Topaz is a crystalline mineral within the silicate group with fluorine within its chemical makeup. Topaz forms as igneous rock cools when volatile gaseous elements such as hydroxyl group (OH) and fluorine emit during volcanic degassing and later magma cooling stages.

Forming within cavities and fractures of rocks that have already cooled, such as granite, rhyolite, and pegmatite, topaz crystals expand as hot hydrothermal fluids flow through the rock cracks. In Australia, professionals have found the mineral in granite-derived placer deposits or gravel carried by streams.

Topaz has been revered since ancient times, with Ancient Egyptians associating the golden color of the gemstone with Ra, the Sun God, and ancient Greeks associating it with strength. With topaz mined during the Middle Ages in Germany’s Erzgebirge Mountains, the mining epicenter shifted to Brazil’s Minas Gerais region in the 1730s, and the industry there remains significant. Beyond its use for jewelry and ornaments, topaz serves as the basis of refractory materials that hold their strength under elevated temperatures and are thus useful for industrial applications in furnaces, incinerators, and reactors.