Overview of Middle Eastern Philosophical Thought

​The intellectual streams of the ancient Middle East were firmly rooted in religious cosmology and thought, forming a rich tapestry that influenced Western civilization for centuries. From the fertile Mesopotamian valleys to the banks of the Nile, early civilizations developed advanced conceptual frameworks to address existential questions about life, divinity, and humanity.

At the heart of Middle Eastern philosophy was the concept of the sacred, where divine agency existed in every realm of life and nature. According to this worldview, everything earthly had a divine prototype, ensuring easy continuity between the worldly and sacred spheres. The Mesopotamians, for instance, believed that the universe was created by introducing order into chaos, a frequent theme in numerous later philosophical and religious traditions.

One of the earliest and most significant philosophical systems to emerge from this region was Zoroastrianism, founded by the Iranian prophet Zarathustra between 1700 and 1800 BCE. Zoroastrian philosophy introduced a rich ethical dualism that would influence many later philosophical traditions. It was the first system to address the problem of evil in metaphysical terms, proposing a conflict between good and evil powers in a monotheistic framework. This metaphysical innovation would later shape Jewish, Christian, and Islamic philosophy.

The Babylonians developed philosophical traditions that went beyond descriptive observation to provide systems of reason and rationale. Their philosophical treatises, such as "Dialog of Pessimism," possessed strikingly similar features to those of post-Greek writings, suggesting possibly some influence over Western philosophy. The dialectic structure of the text was similar to the dialogue technique of Plato and Socrates.

In ancient Egyptian philosophy, the divine-human relationship was particularly advanced. The Egyptians possessed abstract ideas about the afterlife that were linked to ethical behavior in this life. Ma'at, the concept of truth, justice, and cosmic order, was part of their philosophical framework and influenced both practical rule and metaphysical theory.

The ancient Middle East also saw the emergence of various schools of philosophy that explored the essence of light and wisdom. These included Manichaeism, which used Zoroastrianism's dualistic framework, and Zurvanism, which used time as an original creator and explored various means of comprehending reality in terms of aesthetic, materialist, and fatalistic approaches.

The relationship between religion and science in ancient Middle Eastern philosophy was particularly important. Rather than seeing them as separate fields of study, ancient thinkers integrated astronomical observations, mathematical axioms, and religious ideas into coherent systems of thinking. Numbers were not only useful but also spiritually important.

Other modes of literature, including epic poetry, literature of wisdom, and religious works, transmitted and sustained these philosophical schools. The contrast between sacred and secular philosophy also often remained ill-defined, as can be seen in texts such as the epic of Gilgamesh, which combines religious narrative and philosophical speculation.

The influence of Middle Eastern philosophy transcended its era and geographic boundaries. Its impact is evident in Greek philosophy, the Abrahamic religions, and contemporary philosophical thought. The sophisticated ways in which these early thinkers explored questions of existence, morality, and the relationship between the divine and human realms continue to shape modern philosophical inquiry.

Joel Bartsch

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